Human Trafficking Essay Example for Free

Human Trafficking Essay Human trafficking is where a person is exploited by being recruited, transported, transferred and harbored through the use of force. Human trafficking affects every country in the world whether trafficking is conducted in the country of origin, transit or destination for the victims. Thousands of people are trafficked every year in their native countries or abroad. Human Trafficking has been described by some as modern day slavery. It is now one of the fastest growing transnational organized crime. The U. N. eports that there is an estimated one million people trafficked all over the world each year. Trafficking in persons has been described as modern day form of slavery. It is a serious human rights violation and is reported by the United Nations to be the fastest growing form of transnational organized crime. Human Trafficking Issues The major issue advocates against human trafficking face is how to educate and help prevent people from falling victim to human trafficking. Many are tricked into trafficking through job offers abroad. Identifying victims of human trafficking can be difficult. Many trafficked victims may have been forced into prostitution or they may have been caught crossing borders illegally, and because of these reasons they are not very free to approach the police. Language barrier might play a role in a victim not being able to seek help and most times traffickers threaten the victims that their families will be harmed if they were to come forward. It is also hard for advocates against trafficking to convince traffickers to leave the occupation because according to U.  N. estimates, trafficking is the third largest illegal industry which generates close to $ 7 billion to $ 10 billion a year. Surprisingly, an estimated 200,000 American children are trafficked into the sex industry each year and 17,500 foreigners are trafficked into the US. The victims of trafficking mostly come from distressed living conditions such as poverty or abuse and therefore are more vulnerable to deception from traffickers. Eighty percent of the trafficked people are women and children. It is almost impossible to keep track of the statistics of people who are trafficked each year because it is an underground industry. Trafficking is the third largest illegal industry worldwide and does not require much experience and skills and the returns are great, therefore it attracts men and women alike. Traffickers may operate on their own, with their families or some are in more organized groups. Since it does not require a lot of skills, governments with young unemployed youth might find their youth getting involved in the field. Another issue is that once these victims are trafficked and are not able to escape, they fall victim to the â€Å"human trafficking disease† and become traffickers themselves, thereby making it hard to have victims come forward and speak against the trade. Corruption plays a great part in allowing this trade to continue. It is important to note that laws against trafficking vary from country to country, so it is important for one to verse themselves on the laws of each country. However, universally all countries are against trafficking in the books, but the difference might come when it comes to enforcement of the laws. Police corruption in some countries plays a big part in lack of enforcement of the laws. Some police may get payment from the traffickers to look the other way. Victims are encouraged to seek help from organizations that deal with helping individuals free themselves from human trafficking. The best place for trafficking victims to seek refuge is through non-governmental organizations (NGO). NGO’s offer victims a safe place to recover with support from fellow survivors and advocates. Services offered at NGO’s may vary but most will offer temporary shelter, clothing, food, healthcare, counseling and career exploration. The Issue sometimes becomes that the victims will not want to seek help from such places because of fear and shame. Some victims may have contracted sexually transmitted diseases and may have been mentally and physically abused to the point that they feel that they are not worthy and whatever the traffickers tell them about themselves is what they believe. The complex root problems and the limited degree of awareness are factors that make it difficult to fight human trafficking. War, natural disasters, poor social and economic conditions and lack of assistance for victims have helped exacerbate the problem. The trafficking social, psychological and healthcare costs are high to governments. However, these costs are small compared to the long term effects trafficking may do to a nation. The constant irregular migration decreases the human capital and affects the social fabric of the nations affected. Although the human trafficking issue seems like a problem too big to handle, advocates however have not given up. Many inter-governmental bodies, donors, and NGO’s have started addressing the issues from different angles. Some organizations want to start tackling the issue from the source by helping with prevention, re-integration and awareness at the local level. U. N. offers help to nations by helping them draft laws and create national anti-trafficking laws. However, translating the written laws into practice is where the problem lies. Very few individuals have been arrested for human trafficking crimes. The only way governments will be able to help reduce the human trafficking problem is mostly through aggressive awareness programs, whereby curriculums are set in schools with such awareness in mind. Stiffer penalties for traffickers should be implemented, better corporations among governments in releasing information about criminals, a support system whereby people are able to go to seek help, governments should work together to have technology that can dictate fake documents such as passports and border enforcement should be funded and made more stricter. Since most of trafficking occurs during periods people are desperate, it is important that whenever a war breaks out, or there is a natural disaster, governments and NGO’s should take more precaution in verifying the final destination of refugees, and probably do a follow up to ensure that those refugees are safe wherever they stated they were headed. Human trafficking just liked drug trafficking needs humans to move the goods, so the only way to help alleviate the problem is for governments to improve the living conditions of its citizens and offer its citizens satisfactory employment that will keep them away from human trafficking.

Ethical Issues in the UK Government

Ethical Issues in the UK Government Part 1: Case study analysis[D1] Question 1:  Describe the main activities pursued by government. The UK government is a democratically elected entity that has jurisdictional rule over Great Britain and Northern Ireland forming what is commonly known at the United Kingdom. This government is led by the Prime Minister and consists of a tripartite system of a legislative, executive and judicial branches in order to rule consistently and fairly. In the case of the UK government, the legislative branch consists of the Cabinet, which is made up of government ministers who are responsible for making and deciding laws. The executive and legal branches represents the two Houses of Parliament; The House of Commons and The House of Lords respectively. The House of Commons carries out laws and represents peoples (constituencies) interests and the House of Lords scrutinise, amends and evaluates laws. There is also the Supreme Court, which also deals with judicial matters. The UK government also has a monarch figure head in the form of the Queen, who reads out decisions made in her speech. The UK government is responsible for protecting and providing both the economic and social systems of UK society by implementing decent laws for financial stability in UK markets and for providing public services including health care, education and transport for all members of society and including decent legislation to safeguard the quality of jobs and the welfare of citizens. Housing could be incorporated into that list as housing issues are a current concern in the UK. (Jonn Elledge 2017). Some say housing should be top priority for the government. (DCLG priority objectives, 2015 to 2020). The debates around housing vary between demands for the government to build more homes to combat the housing deficiencies around the country, due to densely populated towns and cities. Arguments around redeveloping inner cities and building new social housing on existing brown field sites, or capping private rental fees are all feasible with some ingenuity and forward planning by a willing gove rnment. Discuss the role of government in the case study provided. On the other side of the spectrum are the super-rich who, over many years, have been able to spend small fortunes on acquiring houses in London and other parts of the UK. The case study analysis (Booth, 2016) shows that the UK government has woken up to the fact that some rich millionaires are taking liberties by buying up properties in the UK, using money from questionable sources. The article shows the government has acted proactively and quite boldly to establish a legal framework to put new anti-corruption rules cracking down on offshore secrecy (Booth, 2016) in place to allow for a more transparent process when wealthy investors buy up expensive UK properties. This action by the government to ensure overseas investors and offshore companies have to join a public register of beneficial ownership (Booth, 2016) will reduce corruption in the housing industry. Implementing this legal framework will act as a precedent in safeguarding the UK housing market. It is a bold move by the gov ernment because the article points out many extremely affluent people may sell up their homes and relocate elsewhere as they will lose their anonymity in the UK once this new legislation becomes law. Question 2:  Describe how supply and demand interact to shape prices and  discuss how this applies to Londons property market. The property market is extremely unique in regards to supply and demand concepts. In the property market demand outstrips supply and some of the determinants of this is due to the increases in population, the obtainability of available property and stamp duty costs. There is a lack of Ceteris paribus meaning that all is not equal or held constant in the UK property market at the moment. (Alessandro Sancino, 2015) Before the economic crisis in 2008, house prices continued to soar at unprecedented levels allowing the equilibrium of supply and demand in the property industry to go off track. The economic crash brought with it opportunities for regulating the property market, and allows the elasticity of demand to fall back in line with supply and bring the levels of equilibrium back to an level playing field for the UK property market. Question 3:  Using one theory of ethics, describe the key ethical issues in the case and what you think the Prime Minister should do. A theory of ethics that is relevant for this discussion would be the ethics around justice in organisations and societies. Justice is an ethical perspective that takes account of how benefits and resources are distributed in a society, or even within an organisation. It asks one to think about how one might design just opportunities and the distribution of wealth. (Owain SmoloviĆ¡-Jones, 2015). This theory of ethics would be ideal for the UK government to consider when implementing regulation of the housing market. Ideas around the distributive justice is imperative for a democratic government. I think that this type of ethics is important in regulating the property market because it gives young people a better chance to own their own home and not be priced out the housing market for the foreseeable future. The government that was in power when the case study was written was run by the Conservative Party and led by David Cameron. That government has overtones of having a ca pitalist perspective, which holds that justice is determined by the benefits generated through work which should be distributed according to contribution. In order to apply to a greater demographic of society, that particular government incorporated elements of justice through a socialist perspective to gain greater appeal. This may have been the thinking behind regulating the housing market in the fashion they chose as highlighted in the case study. (Booth, 2016) So that not only the super-rich would benefit from future home ownership in London. This thinking was right in order for the government to show that they are listening to the concerns about the need for regulation in the property sector being generated by MPs, who have been speaking on behalf of their constituents. Question 4:  Identified two human rights that are important in the case.  Explain why these are important and how the Prime Minister should respond. There are two human rights from the Declaration of Human Rights charter (1948) that are relevant for discussion here. The first, Article 12, states that No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948). The UK government should factor in this human rights article in regards to the implications of regulating the London housing market because the case study (Booth, 2016) shows that the super-rich could abandon plans to buy homes in Britain, as they would lose their anonymity once they join the public register for foreign home ownership in the UK. The government should respond to these concerns by putting plans in place, maybe through an advisory board, to make sure the public register, although public, is not used as a tool by the media to scapegoat the super-rich and scaremonger the wider public with tales of unfair home ownership by foreign investors. As undoubtable, the super-rich do make substantial contributions to the UK economy that the government would not want to lose. The second, Article 17 states that everyone should be able to purchase property in their home country (Human Rights Declaration, 1948). This is self-explanatory and affords the government leverage to act on behalf of the interests of British citizens without breaking any discriminatory laws. Currently house prices are soaring at an increasing extent and arguments widely heard include that buying homes are becoming increasingly difficult for first time buyers, and young people to purchase. Due in part to the huge deposits needed to secure a mortgage and the ominous increases in the private rental market. The UK government could use this article to their advantage by stating that this regulatory measure will be used as a stepping stone for further regulation of the housing market and look to tackle these other issues as the next priority. Activities could include working with private sector businesses through Public Private Partnerships to build more homes on existing brownfield sites and factor in through further legislation that only a third of those homes can be sold to foreign investors, whilst two-thirds are ring-fenced for British citizens using, on this occasion, the controversial concept of positive discrimination in regards to British citizens seen as priority over foreign investors. References Sancino, A, Readings 37-45 (2015), Open University. Booth (2016) Super-rich may quit London homes under new anti-corruption rules Open University. Department for Communities and Local Governments (DCLG) single departmental plan. Priority objectives for 2015 to 2020. [online] (Updated 2 September 2016). Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/dclg-single-departmental-plan-2015-to-2020/single-departmental-plan-2015-to-2020. Elledge, J (2017) Britains housing crisis could be solved if only the government wanted to. The Guardian, 30 January 2017 [online]. Available at https://www.google.co.uk/amp/s/amp.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/jan/30/britain-housing-crisis-solved-social-housing. SmoloviĆ¡-Jones, O (2015), Readings 46-55, Open University. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) [online] Available at http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/. [D1]I note straiught awqay that you have not used the full word count. You appear to be short by several hundred words. Please ensure you use the full allowance in your EMA. While quantity doies not guarantee quality, by missing out on so many words there will be an effect on the quality fo your work.

Religion vs magic in dealing with problems Essay -- essays research pa

All societies and human beings have a set of beliefs for ordering the world. Religion and magic are belief systems used by many societies. This essay will discuss the function and moral dimensions of both magic and religion, and focus on the need to explore human beliefs and behaviours in the context of the society in which they occur. I will also discuss the way in which magic and religion use various processes to provide psychological reassurance to individuals, leading to the conclusion that both belief systems incorporate equally rational ways of dealing with problems. Religion can be seen as an overarching controlling force in the universe that sustains the moral and social order of the people, serving to validate people’s lives. The main purposes of religion function to set a moral code and sense of community and security, to explain misfortunes in life and most importantly, to help people through crisis and problems, providing hope and faith. There is some evidence of hostility in Western belief systems toward magic, with magic tending to be understood as an erroneous and unreliable belief knowledge system. Some anthropologists believe it is necessary to distinguish between religion and magic, seeing religion as a rational belief system and magic as irrational. Many evolutionist anthropologists maintain the belief that magic and religion equate to different stages of social evolution, holding that ‘the deeper minds may be conceived to have made the great transition from magic to religion’ (Frazer, J 1890). This phrase is misl eading because it suggests that some societies are less complex, rational or primitive than other ‘advanced’ societies, enhancing the common misconception that religion is a more rational way of dealing with problems than magic is. Religion is generally associated with developed cultures and magic is associated with undeveloped, so-called primitive cultures, hence encouraging the idea that magic belongs to superstitious, irrational individuals with limited intellectual abilities. Magic, through various forms including activities and rituals, provides a means to influence the supernatural. It is a way of gaining information about the unknown, and also gives a sense of control over events and happenings of life. Magic, like religion, provides meaning and purpose, reducing uncertainty, effectively counteracting the forces of fe... ... breadth of experience in terms of something fundamental. There is a basic human unwillingness to think of the universe as random†¦For events that have moral dimensions, as unexpected misfortunes do, we often seek moral causes (Bowen, J. 1988:88). Both magic and religion, with differing methods, aim to seek patterns, causes and reasons for things. There is little point distinguishing between magic and religion. They both provide a way of dealing with problems, are rational within the context of society they exist in, and in some cases, coexist in society. Anthropologists should explore what forms of religion and magic mean to people, how they help to make sense of the world and solve problems, and how they give meaning and direction to different forms of human existence (Eriksen 1995:211). References: Bowen, J. R. 1998. Explaining misfortune: witchcraft and sorcery. Chapter 5 of J.R. Bowen Religions in Practice: An Approach to the Anthropology of Religion. Allyn and Bacon. Eriksen, T. H 2001. Small Places, Large Issues: An Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology. London: Pluto Press. Evans-Pritchard, E. E. 1965. Theories of Primitive Religion. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

If Time Could Be Saved In A [in a] Bottle :: Essays Papers

If Time Could Be Saved In A [in a] Bottle [Nice title -- I wish more students put more thought into their titles.] 1 Anyone who has much exposure to the geriatric population knows that some elderly people are very content with their lives. Even though their bodies may not possess the same physical capabilities that they did in youth, they are surrounded by an aura of contentment that almost make one envious of the inner peace reaped as compensation for a life lived to its fullest capacity. [SV Agr - 1] Given another chance at youth, they would not change the path their lives have taken. [The first two paragraphs could have been combined into one.] 2 There arc others who are bitter with the game that mother nature has played with them. They feel they have not been dealt a fair hand by fate and this is reflected in their manner both physically and spiritually. This is an accurate portrayal of the four friends in the short story written by Nathaniel Hawthorne entitled "Dr. Heidegger's Experiment." [Titles] As the theme of this story reveals, given a second chance at life, is it possible for a person to change their behavior. [The theme of a work should probably not be stated as a question, i.e., either the work suggests that people can change their behavior, or that they cannot. This essay, for example, goes on to suggest that they cannot (or at least that they do not).] 3 Each of the four friends had chosen a lifestyle in which they had temporarily basked in the glow of prosperity, only to lose everything that represents success and respect as a result of their behavior. The description of Dr Heidegger's study -- dim, old fashioned, covered with cobwebs and dust -- parallels the physical description provided by the narrator of the four friends that have gathered for the experiment. The strength of their bodies has faded and left them withered and wrinkled shells of their former selves. The dark, dank atmosphere of the study reflects their melancholy personalities. They are characterized as gray, decrepit, sapless, miserable creatures. Although the the four friends had the opportunity in life to create their own pleasant memories to recall, each of them chose a path in life that left them with no fond recollections.

Shakespeares Macbeth as Tragic Hero Essay -- Macbeth essays

Macbeth as Tragic Hero      Ã‚  Ã‚   A tragic hero is usually a person of high esteem or social ranking cursed with a flaw or obsession that will eventually lead to their demise. Macbeth is a tragic hero. Examining the events that occur as Macbeth travels the typical path of a tragic hero easily supports this claim.    Before Macbeth is even introduced to the audience, Duncan and Ross speak of his greatness. When it is discovered that the Thane of Cawdor has surrendered, Duncan decides to give Macbeth this title: "What he hath lost noble Macbeth hath won" (1.2.70). This lets the audience see Macbeth's rank, which starts him in the right direction for a tragic hero.    As Macbeth starts to believe the prophecies of the witches that he will be the Thane of Cawdor, Glamis, and the King, the audience starts to see his obsession with his destiny: "Stars, hide your fires;/ Let not light see my black and deep desires" (1.4.50-51). This great ambition will turn into the flaw that hurtles Macbeth to his demise.    Macbeth is convinced, partly by his own ambition and partly ...

Does Herodotus Offer Adequate Explanations for Colonisation

Does Herodotus offer adequate explanations for Greek colonisation in the archaic period? Herodotus gives all ancient historians invaluable insights into colonisation in the archaic period, despite having his well known limitations. We must overall regard his work ‘The Histories’ as an equal to archaeological evidence and Thucydides’ work when it comes to studying colonisation in this period. Before I begin this essay, however, I must first quickly define two crucial terms.The term ‘colonisation’ (as we mean it during the during the archaic period) has for some reason been debated at great length by ancient historians, who seem determined to remove it as far away from the imperial meaning of the word as possible. I don’t see why, as both have glaring similarities and only minute differences. They both involve one kind of people moving in significant numbers to a new place (where either a different kind of people or no people were present) and es tablishing their way of life in said location.The only real differences being the literal translation of the word in Greek meaning ‘home away from home’ or ‘trading place’ and the imperial meaning of the word leaning more towards the subjugation of the local inhabitants rather than the replacement of them (which was more common in archaic Greece). The second term is ‘Archaic Period’ which in this essay will be defined as the period from 800 to 478BC.To examine in detail Herodotus’ explanations for colonisation during this period I will examine to what extent he informs us on: land-hunger, trading considerations, drought[1]and I will also comment on his references to the Delphic oracle. I have picked these areas to judge Herodotus on, because they are the most regularly agreed upon reasons for colonisation occurring and therefore his comments on these areas have the potential to be most informative to us, as A.Graham eloquently sums up wi th ‘though a very large number of extant authors provide some piece of information relevant to the history of Greek colonisation only a few are of overriding influence†¦ their [Herodotus and Thucydides] importance lies in their relatively early date, although they belong to a period after the Archaic colonising movement, they are nearer to it than our other substantial sources’[2]. It is for this paramount reason that Herodotus’ comments on these subjects are so crucial to our study of colonisation.In scrutinizing Herodotus’ comments in this field I will look some of the examples that he uses, namely: Chalkedon, Sigeion, Egypt, Olbia and of course Cyrene. So through looking at the four main reasons for colonisation and cross-referencing it with the examples stated I will fully evaluate whether or not Herodotus is an adequate source to look to regarding the archaic colonisation period. It must also be mentioned at this point that ‘political facto rs’ would have also been a strong factor to consider, however, would take up the word count fully all by itself, so will be left for a another time.Land–hunger refers to one of the push factors that are widely believed to have caused many Greeks to leave their original homes in search of more land and in particular, more fertile land. We see this especially in the case of mainland Greece and the Peloponnese where there were less fertile plains and more arid and mountainous terrain Although Herodotus never explicitly tells us that this was a major cause for colonisation, we can infer from some of his writing that this would have been a factor.Herodotus enlightens us to the existence of a colony on the coast of the black seathat ‘have sanctuaries dedicated to the Greek gods and †¦ whose language is a mixture of Scythian and Greek’[3]. Now this alone does not specifically tell us that the Greeks moved to this area because it was particularly fertile or t hat their home region was lacking in enough land, but when you continue to read on and see that it was the Megarians who colonised Chalkedon[4] and Byzantium (located either side of the Bosphorus) then one can easily see the extent to which a Peloponnesian city-state would go to find new lands.This is a weak argument on its own, however, twinned with some basic knowledge of Antiquity it grows in strength. For instance anyone with knowledge of mainland Greek states will know that the Megarians were indeed very restricted with regards to land. They were squashed between the Peloponnesian League members such as Corinth, to the south, and Attica (ruled by Athens), to the north and east. The fact that they set up at least three colonies: Megara Hyblaea, Chalkedon and Byzantium, clearly indicates land-hunger, just as their geography would suggest.On top of this, anyone with a basic knowledge of antiquity would also be aware of the huge agricultural resources available around the black sea , proved by Athens’ later dependency on grain imports from this region during the Peloponnesian wars. The way in which Herodotus describes Cyrene as having a ‘hole in the sky’[5] (i. e. it rains more making the ground more fertile) can also be taken as a heavy hint as to why Cyrene was set up.My point being, when reading Herodotus, sometimes he must be used in conjunction with elementary knowledge to support or disprove points. In this case he has supported the idea that land-hunger was an adequate explanation for Greek colonisation though not explicitly telling us. One has to admit though that over the course of the whole work, Herodotus does fail to fully support this factor. Unless you are a primitivist, trading advantages had to be a substantial pull factor for your city to advocate colonisation.I will develop this argument assuming that the Greeks were an enterprising race because this is the argument that will prove to be entirely accepted in due course. Th e finest example of Herodotus explaining colonisation, in regards to trading motives, is his account of the settlement set up at the mouth of the River Nile called Naukratis. He declares ‘Naukratis was the only trading-station and there was no other in Egypt’[6] and goes on remark on the religious temples set up in honour of Zeus, Hera and Apollo naming Aeginetans, Samians and Milesians all present in the city.This was clearly a settlement set up with the aim of extending trade relations with the Egyptians for the benefit of Greeks. In a separate example though, one can again use basic knowledge of Hellenes in antiquity (the basic knowledge being that the Bosphorus was extremely important to trade even in archaic times) combined with Herodotus’ passage on Chalkedon[7] to see that control of the Bosphorus was important enough to trade that colonies were set up here on numerous occasions.Sigeion, just south of the Bosphorus and situated on the mouth of the river St rymon was (as Herodotus informs us) fought over furiously by Athens and Mytilene[8], again signifying the importance of trade to the foundation of colonies in the archaic period. So Herodotus then giving us comprehensive proof of trade being an adequate factor in the establishment of colonies in the archaic period. Dillon points to drought as one of the factors that lead directly to colonisation. No better example of this, in ancient literature, exists than the account of Cyrene’s foundation. For the next seven years, however, no rain fell on Thera, and all their trees, with a single exception, withered. ’[9] Now, following this short passage, we again encounter a common limitation of Herodotus, ‘The islanders consulted the oracle, and the Pythia reminding them that they were supposed to colonise Libya’[10]; that is his continuous permeation of oracles into most of his work. This is not to say that we can disregard ancient historians’ reference†™s to all oracle’s all the time, but it is of my own opinion that we take much of Herodotus’ oracular reports with a pinch of salt.So although Herodotus may have been reported a tale of curses and prophecies regarding Thera’s drought, I would take his account and remedy a notion that what was most likely to have occurred was: that the Therans had some bad luck with the weather for a indeterminate period of time and as a result could not sustain the population they included†¦ so, decided to relieve pressure on the city by sending a portion of its population to a land where they could survive (or perhaps even sustain the original colony? . To clarify my earlier ‘pinch of salt’ phrase it moves me to use the words of M. Giangiulio expressing the idea that ‘cultural memory does not ‘reflect’ historical reality, even if it expresses a form of historical self-awareness’[11]. This is the sense in which I believe we should us e Herodotus, using our modern sense of hindsight and sensibility to understand ‘historical reality’ more accurately. For further details on ‘intentional history’[12] see footnote.This is the most blatant example I have touched on so far of Herodotus supporting one of the five stated reasons for colonisation and therefore yet again going some way to adequately explaining Greek colonisation in the archaic period. The Delphic Oracle is central to the explaining of why many colonies are set up. Maurizio Giangiulio supports this line of argument by telling us ‘The decisive role played by the Delphic oracle is very strongly emphasized, through various narrative devices’[13] in this case Herodotus: ‘the oracle declared that he would found a community in Libya’[14].It is ion this way that Herodotus is able to properly shed light on a crucial part of explaining the colonising process, making evident that it was foolhardy to go on an expedit ion without the expressed will of the gods ‘the importance attached to the god’s will is an integral part of a representational strategy [of a colony]’ states Giangiulio, extending this with ‘Cyrene represent themselves- it would seem –as a polies which stood high in Apollo’s favour’[15]. To conclude, there is no denying that Herodotus has his flaws in providing explanations for Greek colonisation.I am not pushing the argument that Herodotus is an infallible source on every case study he mentions either. What must be clear though after reading this essay is that Herodotus can be used with great effectiveness to inform us on the explanations of Greek colonisation. Simple guidelines can be fitted to reading his work that allow one to see past what modern minds would usually consider fantasy, but which can really help reveal the truth in many of the cases he does use.He supports three of the four reasons very strongly, and even if he does fall short in regards to land-hunger he more than makes up for it by placing huge emphasis on the importance of oracles and trading which must be considered the principal reason for explaining in the archaic period. Words: 1,961 ———————– [1] Dillon, Ancient Greece, 2000, Routledge, pp. 1 I have not looked at political consideration only due to my word count being limited to 2000, not through sloth or lack of interest. 2] Boardman, 1982, pp. 85 (Cambridge Ancient History) [3] Herodotus, 4. 108. [4] Herodotus, 4. 144 [5] Herodotus, 4. 159 [6] Herodotus, 2. 152-154, 178-181 [7] Herodotus, 4. 144 [8] 5. 94-95 [9] 4. 151 [10] 4. 151 [11] M. Giangiulio, Constructing the past: colonial traditions and the writing of history ‘the case of Cyrene’, in N. Luraghi The Historian’s Craft in the age of Herodotus, 2001, pp. 120 [12] H.Gehrke, Mythos, Geschicte, Politik-antik und modern, 1994 pp. 239-64 [13] M. Giangiulio, Co nstructing the past: colonial traditions and the writing of history ‘the case of Cyrene’, in N. Luraghi The Historian’s Craft in the age of Herodotus, 2001, pp. 117 [14] 4. 150 [15] M. Giangiulio, Constructing the past: colonial traditions and the writing of history ‘the case of Cyrene’, in N. Luraghi The Historian’s Craft in the age of Herodotus, 2001, pp. 118

Facial Identification Of Driver Fatigue Health And Social Care Essay

Driver weariness is frequently one of the prima causes of traffic accidents. In this concluding twelvemonth undertaking, a computing machine vision attack which exploits the driver ‘s facial look is considered, utilizing a combination of the Viola-Jones face sensing technique and support vector machines to sort facial visual aspect and find the degree of weariness.Section 1: DescriptionIntroductionStatisticss show that driver weariness is frequently one of the prima causes of traffic accidents. Over the past few old ages, a batch of research and attempt has been put forth in planing systems that monitor both driver and driving public presentation. A computing machine vision attack which exploits the driver ‘s facial look is considered in this concluding twelvemonth undertaking. The Viola-Jones real-time object sensing model working on a boosted cascade of Haar ripple characteristics is adopted for face sensing. To find the degree of weariness, multiple characteristic cate gorization is so performed utilizing support vector machines. The motives for taking to develop the system in this mode are the rapid face sensing times coupled with the simple and inexpensive overall execution, avoiding the demand to put in expensive and complex hardware.Concise Literature ReviewThis subdivision gives a wide reappraisal of the literary work related to face sensing in fatigue monitoring systems and engineerings, concentrating peculiarly on what has been done in the field of driver weariness. In subdivision 1.2.1, several statistics of fatigue-related motor vehicle accidents are mentioned and analysed. Section 1.2.2 high spots some of the more successful systems ( both commercial and non-commercial ) that have been implemented in recent old ages. On the other manus, subdivision 1.2.3 nowadayss an enlightening overview of the algorithms and techniques typically used in the development of such systems, particularly those refering to both face and facial characteristic sensing. Representative plants for each of these methods will be included.Statisticss Related to Driver FatigueDriver weariness has been one of the chief causes of route accidents and human deaths in recent old ages, and in this subdivision an effort is made to foreground some of the more of import statistics that demonstrate this negative tendency. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) [ 1 ] estimations that 2-23 % of all vehicle clangs can be attributed to driver weariness. Every twelvemonth, around 100,000 traffic accidents and 71,000 hurts related to driver sleepiness are reported in the United States, out of which more than 1,300 are fatal [ 2 ] . The NHTSA [ 3 ] besides reports that in the twelvemonth 2005 entirely, there were about 5,000 route human deaths ( around 8.4 % ) which were caused either by driver inattention ( 5.8 % ) or sleepy and fatigued drive ( 2.6 % ) . Furthermore, 28 % of fatal traffic accidents were due to lane maintaining failure, one of the indirect effects of weariness on drivers, ensuing in the loss of 16,000 lives. Undoubtedly, truck drivers are more capable to tire chiefly because of the long hours travelled on main roads, taking to inevitable humdrum journeys. In fact, a survey by the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) [ 4 ] confirmed that weariness was the finding factor in 51 out of 87 instances of truck accidents. These dismaying statistics pointed to the demand to plan and implement systems capable of tracking and analyzing a driver ‘s facial features or organic structure provinces and giving a warning signal at the first noticeable marks of weariness to seek and forestall the likely happening of an accident. In the following subdivision of this literature reappraisal, a figure of these systems will be presented.Existing Fatigue Monitoring SystemsMany different attacks for systems undertaking the job of driver fatigue have been studied and implemented over the past few old ages. Earlier devices tended to be instead intrusive, necessitating physical contact to mensurate fatigue characteristics while driving. These characteristics included bosom rate variableness, analysis of encephalon signals every bit good as the driver ‘s physiological province. Other systems studied the relation of driver sleepiness to maneuvering clasp and vehicle motions, with some besides using lane tracking installations. However, the focal point nowadays is more towards independent non-intrusive systems that work in the background without deflecting the driver in any manner, able to observe and track caput and oculus motions by agencies of one or more cameras mounted on the vehicle ‘s splashboard. The bulk of merchandises tracking weariness have been designed for on-road vehicles, such as autos, trucks and engines, and these will be reviewed in the undermentioned subdivision. In Section 1.2.2.2, other types of weariness monitoring systems that have been deployed will be analysed.On-Road Fatigue Monitoring SystemsCommercially Implemented SystemsIn the system presented by Advanced Brain Monitoring Inc. [ 5 ] , a caput mounted device in the signifier of a baseball cap uses the encephalon ‘s EEG ( Electroencephalography ) signals to mensurate weariness. Two electrodes inside the baseball cap are connected to the driver ‘s scalp to capture these signals, directing them v ia wireless moving ridges to a processing device 20 pess off from the driver. Russian seller Neurocom marketed the Engine Driver Vigilance Telemetric Control System ( EDVTCS ) [ 6 ] for usage within the Russian railroad system. EDVTCS continuously track drivers ‘ physiological province by mensurating alterations in the electro cuticular activity ( EDA ) i.e. alterations in the tegument ‘s opposition to electricity based on the eccrine perspiration secretory organs of the human organic structure, located chiefly on the thenar of our custodies and the colloidal suspensions of our pess. One of the first non-intrusive driver weariness supervising systems was ASTiD ( Advisory System for Tired Drivers ) [ 7 ] . It consists of an up-to-date knowledge-base theoretical account exposing a 24-hour anticipation form sing the possibility of the driver traveling to kip piece at the wheel, and a guidance wheel detector system capable of placing humdrum driving intervals, such as those in main roads, every bit good as unusual maneuvering motions as a consequence of driver weariness. Lane trailing is another attack taken to place distraction forms while driving. SafeTRAC, by AssistWare Technology [ 8 ] , consists of a picture camera located on the windscreen of the vehicle ( confronting the route ) and a splashboard mounted having device to which it is connected. The camera is able to observe lane markers in roads and issues hearable, ocular or haptic warnings if fickle drive forms, such as changeless impetuss between lanes, are observed. Sing the issues encountered in earlier systems, more importance now started being given to systems that monitored driver head motions, face and facial characteristics. MINDS ( MicroNod Detection System ) , described in [ 9 ] , paths head place and motion, with caput nodding being the chief weariness characteristic used for observing micro-sleep ( short periods of distraction ) while driving. Head motion is tracked by an array of three capacitance detectors located merely above the driver ‘s cockpit. Yet another attack was taken by David Dinges and Richard Grace [ 10 ] at the Carnegie Mellon Research Institute ( CMRI ) in the development of the PERCLOS proctor, which determines the oculus closing per centum over clip for fatigue sensing. In [ 11 ] , PERCLOS is defined as the proportion of clip the eyes are closed 80 % or more for a specified clip interval. FaceLAB [ 12 ] focal points on both face and oculus trailing, mensurating PERCLOS ( PERcentage of oculus CLOSure over clip ) and analyzing water chickweeds in existent clip ( including wink frequence and wink continuance ) . A important difference from other systems is that the absolute place of the eyelid, instead than the occlusion of the student, is used to mensurate oculus closing, doing it much more accurate. The 2001 AWAKE undertaking of the European Union [ 13 ] focused specifically on driver weariness, integrating many of the above mentioned steps. The chief end of this undertaking, ( its acronym standing for System for effectual Assessment of driver watchfulness and Warning Harmonizing to traffic hazard Estimation ) , was to supply research on the real-time, non-intrusive monitoring of the driver ‘s current province and driving public presentation. Many spouses were involved in AWAKE, including developers, makers and providers of electronics, research institutes, universities, auto makers and terminal users. The undertaking ‘s initial ends were those of accomplishing over 90 % dependability, a lower than 1 % false dismay rate and a user credence rate transcending 70 % . Car fabrication companies, such as Toyota, Nissan and DaimlerChrysler [ 9 ] are besides in the procedure of developing their ain weariness supervising systems.Research Based SystemsMany research documents closely related to driver fatigue monitoring have been published in recent old ages. Assorted attacks have been proposed, among which skin coloring material information has been really popular. Smith [ 14 ] nowadayss a system based on skin coloring material predicates to find weariness from oculus wink rate and caput rotary motion information. Similarly, in the gaze way monitoring system proposed by Wahlstrom et Al. [ 15 ] , coloring material predicates are used to turn up the lip part by finding those pels that match the needed coloring material values. Face extraction by skin coloring material cleavage utilizing the normalized RGB skin coloring material theoretical account is adopted in both [ 16 ] and [ 17 ] . Veeraraghavan and Papanikolopoulos [ 16 ] developed a system to observ e forms of micro-sleep by continuously tracking the driver ‘s eyes. PERCLOS is the fatigue characteristic measured in Aryuanto and Limpraptono ‘s system [ 17 ] . Horng and Chen [ 18 ] attempted to utilize the HSI coloring material theoretical account to take the consequence of brightness from the image. Machine acquisition is another common attack to tire sensing. Yang et Al. [ 19 ] choose to follow a Bayesian Network based â€Å" probabilistic model † to find the fatigue degree. A Bayesian Network theoretical account is besides constructed in [ 20 ] , where Zhu and Lan track multiple ocular cues, including caput and oculus motions and facial looks via two cameras, one for the face and the other concentrating specifically on the eyes, every bit good as Infra-Red illuminators to illume up the needed countries of the face. A nervous web attack is adopted by D'Orazio et Al. [ 21 ] and RibariA†¡ et Al. [ 22 ] in their proposed systems. In [ 21 ] , the oculus is detected based on the border information of the flag, with its darker coloring material doing it much easier to turn up. A back extension nervous web is trained to sort the province of the eyes ( either unfastened or closed ) . On the other manus, in [ 22 ] , a intercrossed nervous web and a combination of the â€Å" HMAX theoretical account † and â€Å" Viola-Jones sensor † together with a Multi-Layer Perceptron ( MLP ) are used to turn up the face. The grade of caput rotary motion, oculus closing and oral cavity openness are the fatigue steps calculated. To sort driver public presentation informations, Liang et Al. [ 23 ] make usage of Support Vector Machines ( SVMs ) . They focus on cognitive ( mental ) , instead than ocular driver distractions. For fast face and facial characteristic sensing, the method proposed by Viola and Jones affecting a boosted cascade of characteristics based on Haar ripples is adopted in a figure of documents, including [ 24 ] and [ 25 ] . Often, a loanblend of techniques are used to obtain better consequences for driver weariness sensing. Saradadevi and Bajaj [ 26 ] usage Viola-Jones ‘ method for mouth sensing and SVMs to right sort normal and yawning oral cavity cases. On the contrary, the one presented by Narole and Bajaj [ 27 ] combines pixel-based skin coloring material cleavage for face sensing and a mixture of nervous webs and familial algorithms to optimally find the weariness index, with the nervous web being given as initial input values for oculus closing and oscitance rate.Other Fatigue Mo nitoring SystemsAs with drivers in autos, pilots in aircrafts are obviously capable to tire, chiefly due to the drawn-out flight continuances. NTI Inc. and Science Applications International Corporation ( SAIC ) [ 28 ] designed the Fatigue Avoidance Scheduling Tool ( FAST ) , a system intended to track and foretell weariness degrees for U.S. Air Force pilots, based on the SAFTE ( Sleep, Activity, Fatigue and Task Effectiveness ) theoretical account created by Dr. Steven Hursh. Another application in which weariness monitoring is utile is in the bar of Computer Vision Syndrome [ 29 ] , a status caused by working for drawn-out hours in forepart of show devices, such as computing machine proctors. Matsushita et Al. [ 30 ] besides developed a wearable weariness monitoring system which detects marks of weariness based on caput motions. The broad assortment of different applications developed to supervise weariness is an grounds of the turning importance of this field. The focal point in the following portion of the literature reappraisal will switch to the weariness analysis attack taken in this thesis: the sensing of faces and their characteristics in images. The implicit in methods and algorithms typically used in this procedure will be discussed.Reappraisal on Face and Facial Feature Detection TechniquesKnowledge-based methodsDetecting faces in knowledge-based techniques involves the encryption of a set of simple regulations specifying the features of the human face, including pixel strengths in the images and the places and correlativities between the different characteristics, since these are common to all human existences. In a knowledge-based method presented by Yang and Huang [ 31 ] , a hierarchy of grayscale images of different declarations together with three different classs of regulations are used. The images are analysed for possible face campaigners by using regulations that have to make with the cell strength distribution of the human face. An betterment to this multi-resolution method was proposed by Kotropoulos and Pitas [ 32 ] . Alternatively of ciphering the mean pixel strength of each cell, merely those for each image row and column are computed, organizing perpendicular and horizontal profiles severally. To vouch a high sensing rate, the regulations in knowledge-based methods must neither be excessively general nor excessively specific, and hence, the coevals of regulations for the face must be performed really carefully. Because of the complexness required in coding all possible face constellations, rule-based techniques do non provide for different face airss [ 33 ] , doing them decidedly inappropriate for weariness monitoring applications.Feature-based methodsFeature-based attacks to confront sensing differ in a important manner from rule-based techniques in that they foremost attempt to place a individual ‘s facial properties and later find whether the latter are valid plenty to represent a human face, ensuing in the sensing of that face.Facial FeaturesThe presence of faces in images is frequently determined by trying to observe facial characteristics such as the eyes, nose and mouth. In a method presented by Sirehoy [ 34 ] , the egg-shaped nature of the human face is used as the footing for face sensing in grayscale images with littered backgrounds. Due to the different visual aspects of facial characteristics in images, Leung et Al. [ 35 ] usage a combination of several local characteristic sensors utilizing Gaussian derivative filters together with a statistical theoretical account of the geometrical distances between these characteristics to guarantee accurate face localisation. Han et Al. [ 36 ] , on the other manus, usage morphological operations that focus chiefly on the oculus part in their efforts to observe faces, based on the logical thinking that this is the most consistent facial part in different light conditions. A more robust and flexible feature-based system was presented by Yow and Cipolla [ 37 ] . The theoretical account cognition of the face that is used screens a wider country, including the superciliums, eyes, nose and mouth. A figure of Partial Face Groups ( PFGs ) , tantamount to a subset of these characteristic points ( 4 ) , are used to provide for partial face occlusions.Face TextureAnother face cue that is used for sensing intents is its textural form, this being specific to worlds and hence easy discriminable from other forms. Manian and Ross [ 38 ] present an algorithm that uses the symmetricalness and uniformity of the facial form as the footing of sensing. Rikert et Al. [ 39 ] tackle texture-based sensing in a different manner, utilizing a statistical method that learns to correctly sort whether an image contains a face or non.Skin ColourMany plants related to human clamber coloring material as a face sensing cue have been presented in recent old ages. Detection can be either pixel-based or region-based. The former attack is normally taken, in which each pel is analysed and classified as either tegument or non-skin. Two chief picks are made during this procedure: the coloring material infinite and tegument modeling method. Harmonizing to [ 40 ] , the normalized RGB, HSV and YCrCb coloring material infinites are typically used to pattern skin coloring material. Normalized RGB [ 41 – 45 ] is reported to be consistent in different light conditions and face orientations. On the other manus, YCrCb [ 46 – 48 ] and HSV [ 49 – 51 ] are normally chosen since they specifically separate the luminosity and chrominance constituents of the images. In [ 40 ] , several other tegument patterning techniques normally adopted are mentioned.Template matching methodsAnother proposed method for face sensing involves the storage of forms of the face and its characteristics, which are so compared to existent face images and given a correlativity value ( i.e. the degree of similarity between the existent image and the stored form ) . The higher this value, the greater is the opportunity that the image contains a face. Works on templet fiting techniques in recent old ages have focused both on fixed and variable-size ( deformable ) templets.Fixed-size TemplatesFengjun et Al. [ 52 ] and Ping et Al. [ 53 ] usage a combination of skin coloring material cleavage and templet matching for face sensing. Two grayscale templets with predefined sizes – one covering the whole face and the other concentrating merely on the part incorporating the two eyes – are utilised in both systems. Fixed-size templets, although straightforward to implement, miss adaptability to different caput places since sensing is greatly affected by the orientation defined in the templet.Deformable TemplatesAn improved templet matching method is one in which the templet can be altered to better reflect the input images and therefore would be able to place a wider assortment of faces in different airss. Yuille et Al. [ 54 ] propose deformable oculus and mouth templet matching in their work. Initially, the templets are parameterized through pre-processing to bespeak the expected form of both characteristics. The work presented by Lanitis et Al. [ 55 ] besides parameterizes the templet s, concentrating on the coevals of flexible molded human face theoretical accounts through the usage of a â€Å" Point Distribution Model † ( PDM ) [ 56 ] which is trained on a figure of images per individual with characteristic fluctuations within and between faces.Appearance-based methodsRather than being based on a set of preset templets, appearance-based face sensing relies on machine larning techniques that identify the presence of faces and their major features after a procedure of developing on existent universe informations. One of the most widely adopted machine larning attacks for face sensing are nervous webs, chiefly because of the success they achieved in other applications affecting pattern acknowledgment. Rowley et Al. [ 57 ] propose a robust multi-layer multi-network nervous web that takes as input pre-processed 20Ãâ€"20 grayscale pel images to which a filter is applied at each pel place, returning a face correlativity value from -1 to 1. The concealed beds o f the nervous web are designed to supervise different shaped countries of the human face, such as both eyes utilizing a 20Ãâ€"5 pel window and single eyes and other characteristics with the 5Ãâ€"5 and 10Ãâ€"10 Windowss. The web so outputs another mark finding the presence or otherwise of a face in a peculiar window. Yang et Al. [ 58 ] establish their system on a Sparse Network of Winnows ( SNoW ) [ 59 ] . Two mark nodes ( â€Å" linear units † ) patterning face and non-face form characteristics are used in this instance. The active characteristics ( with binary representation ) in an input illustration are first identified and given as input to the web. The mark nodes are â€Å" coupled via leaden borders † to a subset of the characteristics. To update the weights for farther preparation, the Winnow update regulation method developed by Littlestone [ 60 ] is adopted. A additive categorization technique in the signifier of Support Vector Machines ( SVMs ) was used to observe faces in an application presented by Osuna et al [ 61 ] in 1997. While the bulk of machine acquisition attacks ( including nervous webs ) effort to take down the â€Å" empirical hazard † , i.e. the mistake value in the preparation procedure, SVMs attempt to cut down the upper edge of the expected generalisation mistake in a procedure called â€Å" structural hazard minimisation † . Viola and Jones [ 62 ] present a rapid object sensing system holding face sensing as its motive. A important difference from other proposed systems is that rectangular characteristics, instead than pels, nowadays in the inputted grayscale images are used as the bases for categorization. This has the consequence of increasing the velocity of the overall procedure. Viola and Jones ‘ method will be discussed in item in the following chapter of this thesis.Purposes and AimsFamiliarization with the OpenCV tool. Literature Review about bing systems and methods to be used in this Dissertation. Fast face sensing utilizing Viola-Jones technique. Execution of multiple facial characteristics used to find the fatigue degree. Application of Support Vector Machine classifier to observe unsafe state of affairss such as driver kiping etc. Real-time execution of the proposed methods within OpenCV.MethodsViola-Jones technique for face sensing. Support vector machines to sort facial visual aspect ( e.g. open/closed eye/mouth ) . Features to be taken into consideration: caput motion, oculus closing and frequence of oral cavity gap ( bespeaking yawning ) . Eye weariness steps include PERCLOS ( PERcentage Eye CLOSure over clip ) and AECS ( Average Eye Closure Speed ) .EvaluationComparing the developed system to other systems found in literature in footings of preciseness, callback and truth. Deducing some trial informations on which the algorithms will be tested. Test topics seeking out the application. Showing the consequences obtained.DeliverablesProgress Report. Review Report. 2 page abstract for ICT Final YearA Student Projects Exhibition. Presentation Slides and Poster. Spiral and difficult edge transcripts of the Dissertation Report. C++ application, preparation and testing resources.Section 2: Work PlanWork done so farCollected and read several documents related to bing driver weariness systems and face sensing in general. Completed the first bill of exchange of the literature reappraisal. Familiarized myself with the OpenCV environment. Used a webcam to capture two short cartridge holders inside a auto, one in sunny and the other in cloud-covered conditions. Collected 2000 positive and 4000 negative images for face sensing. Positive images: 1500 taken from FERET grayscale face database, the other 500 from the captured cartridge holders. Negative images: created a C++ application to randomly choice non-relevant countries of the frames of the two captured cartridge holders. Created another C++ application to be able to harvest the positive images to bespeak merely the needed rectangular countries, bring forthing a text file to be used in the preparation procedure. Used this information to bring forth a classifier for faces in XML format with OpenCV ‘s Haar preparation public-service corporation.SubtasksCompute truth, preciseness and callback values for the face sensing preparation. Trial with new picture cartridge holders and observing the consequences obtained. Perform Cross Validation. Train the classifier for oral cavities, once more utilizing positive and negative images. For oculus sensing, an already generated classifier will be used. Extract characteristics from face, oculus and mouth sensing. Integrate and utilize a C++ library for support vector machines, such as libSVM, to sort facial visual aspect. Write Abstract, Introduction, Methodology, Evaluation, Results, Future Work and Conclusion of the Dissertation Report. Write Review Report. Write 2 page abstract for ICT Final YearA Student Projects Exhibition. Work on Presentation Slides and Poster.Schedule ( Gantt Chart )Section 3: Mentions[ 1 ] D. Dinges, M. Mallis, G. Maislin and J. Powell ( 1998 ) . â€Å" Concluding study: Evaluation of Techniques for Ocular Measurement as an Index of Fatigue and the Basis for Alertness Management † , U.S. Dept. 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